The Buddha's Analytical Ethics
Dr. Amar Singh
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1. Ethics examines and determines the criterion of
moral judgement, good and bad action, result, values, virtues, goal of
human life, etc. An attempt in this paper is made to analyze some
Sautraantika ethical doctrines, as found in the Suutras. It is analytical
in the sense that it has critically and minutely analyzed ethical concepts
and practice.
2. There is a deep rooted misconception prevalent among
some modern scholars who consider Buddha's ethics as mere rerival of Vedic
or Upanisadic ethics as holds S. Radha Krishanan and followed by others.
"The only metaphysics that can judge Buddha's ethical descipline is
the metaphysics under-lying the Upani.sads." An analysis of Suutra
analytical ethics goes contrary to this deep rooted misconception which
has also been examined in this paper.
3. The Analytical Philosopher (vibhajjavaadin) Buddha
revolutionized the traditional metaphysical ethics and ritualistic
conduct. The survey of early Suutras reveals beyond doubt that he was
stern against the contemporary brabmanic as well as nonbrahamanic (Aajivika,
Jainas) Philosophy of moral principles and conduct. Sometime, an illusion
is created by similarity of the terms such as Karma, Dharma etc. The
Buddha did use these terms such as Karma, paapa, pu.nya, maitri, Karu.naa
etc, but he radically changed their connotations. He did not coin new
terms or invented new the framework of existing language. Sometimes, the
Buddha is criticizcd by Brahmins as Akriyaavaadin (non-actionalist) for
refuting all traditional ethical concept and practice which clearly verify
Buddha's critical attitude towards determinism (niyativada), theism (iswaravaada),
soulism (aatmavaada), asceticism, Purohitavaada (Priestism), castism (jaativaada)
etc. as false ethical concepts and practice.
4. The survey of Vedic literature brings into light
that some of the philosophers of the Vedas, particularly last chapter of
Yajurveda suggest a theory of detached Karma. The human virtues such as
loving kindness (maitri), compassion (Karu.naa), non-violence, justice,
wisdom etc. are duly mentioned. Some of the ancient Vedic seers were quite
aware of importance of Karma and moral virtue which were appraised by the
Buddha himself. These ancient norms later on, were replaced by fatalism,
determinism, ritualism as evinced by 'Satapatha Braahma.na. "The
sacrifice is two fold with oblation men satisfy the Gods, with gift the
human gods (Brahmins) when qualified convey the worshipper to heavenly
world."[Sat Brah. II. 22, 6 and IV. 344].
5. The moral values were long ago recognized by Indian
seers but the criterion of moral action was solely derived from scriptural
or priestly authority. The Buddha's revolution turned the head of
Authoritarianism down to the feet of Empricism, Pragmatism and Personal
experience. It can be considered to be a Copernious Revolution in the
field of ethics.
6. Now, permit me to deal with fundamental principles
of Ethics found in the Suutras and followed by the later Sautrantikas. The
present author found following nine differential characteristics of the
Suutra ethics:
a. Volition as the criterion of an ethical judgement.
b. Suprimacy of Karma.
c. Freedom of Will.
d. Human responsibility.
e. Anti-passimism.
f. Humanistic.
g. Practical.
h. Psychological
k. Therapeutical.
7. Volition as criterion of moral judgement: Volition (cetanaa)
was categorically taught by the Buddha as criterion of moral (Kusala) or
immoral (Akusala) action. He considered action (Karma) as the cause of
diversities of the world against the traditional view of god as the
creator. There is no trace whatsoever of the evidence of volition or
cetanaa as the criterion of ethical judgement in Pre-Buddha literature
which lay stress on testimony or priestly authority as the criterion of
moral judgement.
Ethically, there is slight difference between the
connotation of the terms 'volition' and 'will'. Volition (cetanaa) and
will (cetiyitvaa) signifies active aspect of volition.
8. There is an important puzzling question of ethics:
whether an intention or consequence (result) should be a criterion of
moral judgement ? Intuitionalists advocate intention, while
Utititarianists take utility or consequence as the criterion. The Buddha's
inclusion of volition or will does not exclude consequence also. Every
good volition and will is invariably followed by happy feeling and vice
versa. This consequence appears in the form of happiness or unhappiness.
A good intention is an award in itself invariably
linked with happy feeling irrespective of consequence But, exhorts the
Buddha, there is no escape neither in caves nor in ocean from of results (phala)
of action, Thus, we find unique reconcilation of volitionalism and
Utilitarianism in the Suutra Ethics.
9. Suprimacy of Action: The Buddha also offers the
throne of suprimacy to action (Karma) which is the creator of variety,
diversities and multiplisities of the world against the traditional view
of the one single agent or god, or supreme being as the creator. The
author cannot resist the desire to put forward Buddha's own word on this
question:
"Owner of their own Karma, 0 young man, are living
beings heirs of their Karma, have karma as the wombs from which they
spring, having Karma as their refugee. Karma marks of living being, making
them become depraved and excellent" (kammassakaa maa.nava sattaa,
kammadaayadaa, kammayoni, kammabandhu kammapa.tisara.naa kamma.m satte
vibhajati yadida.m hinappa.nitataaya. Cuulakammavibhaagasutta, M.V.P.
14/511/176)
He categorically gave highest importance to Karma in
following words. "Because of karma the world and people are
continued. Just as a wheels of cart are bound with an axil, similarly all
being are bound with and controlled by action:
Kammanaa vattaati loko, kammanaa vattati pajjaa,
Kammanaa nibandhanaa sattaa, rathasaa.niva yaayataa [Sn.
61]
10. The Buddha declared his unprecedented discovery
about four kinds of karma (cattaari imaani, bhikkhave, kammaani mayaa
sayam abhi~n~naaya sacchikatvaa paveditani) as follows:
Four kind of karma, 0 bbikkhus, I have realised by my
own wisdom and then made known to the world. What are four? They are black
karma having black result, white karma having white result,
black-and-white karmas having back-and-white results and neither black not
white karmas having neither black-nor-white result and leading to
cessation of karma [Ang, catukka 21/233/314].
The karmas are also divided into bodily action (kaayakarma),
verbal action (vaaci-karma) and mental action (maanasa karma).
11. Freedom of Will: Freedom of will is another
fundamental principles of the Suutra ethics. It is the free will or power
of choice to perform good and bad deeds, which make ethics possible. In
the case where there is no free will or actions are determined, then no
question of moral teachings is applicable. The Buddha strongly laid stress
on freedom of will and refuted all kinds of determinism (niyativaada). The
Buddha analyzed three kinds of determinism which lead to non-actionalism (akriyavaada)
or annihilation (ucchedavaada) of all morality. They are the:
a. Prior-action determinism (Puurvakarmak.rataniyativaada);
b. Godly determinism (I'svarak.rtaniyativaada) and
c. Non-causalism (ahetukayvaada).
Prior-action determinism is a pre-Buddhist ethical
viewpoint claiming that our every present action good or bad is determined
by the actions of previous life. Second one advocates that all our actions
good or bad are determined by God, and third one proclaimes non-causal or
accidentalism leading to non-actionallism which is also a fatal blow to
all ethical norms These views cut off the very root of ethics which is
grounded on Freedom of Will. The Buddha vehemently refutes all these kinds
of determinism. The Buddha exhorts "If one essentially believes in
determinism then the resolution that I should not do this and I should do
this, I should not perform this act, will not take place when they loose
the mindfulness (sati) about what is appropriate and what is not, then
they will fall into the reasonlessness or into the net of defeat (niggaha),"
[Ang. Tik. 61]. It is another evidence of Buddha's demarcation from
traditional determinism and clearly reveals his revolutionary attitude
onwards the orthodox false ethical views.
12. Other kinds of non-actionalism (akriyavaada) was
propogated by some six contemporary ethical philosophers: Ajitakesakambi
(materialism, ucchedavaada). Puurana Kaassapa (moral scepticism), Pakudha
Kaaccaayana (eternalism, akriyavaada), Nigan.tha Nathaputta (prior-karma
determinism) and Sa~njaya Bela.t.thi (scepticism). The Buddha vehemently
refuted all kindso f nonactionalism, scepticism and determinism and taught
the law of karma and its results in such an analytical way that was not
known before.
13. An analysis of karma as criterion of ethical
judgement in Kaalaamasutta of A"nguttara-Nikaaya brings forward
following points:
a. Approved by your own experience, correct causal
relation and correct logical judgement;
b. To be sceptical about any authority , testimony,
majority, shopistry etc. That means no blind faith in traditionalism and
orthodoxism.
c. The deed in order to be righteous must be
meritorious.
d. Such a deed is praised by the wise.
e. Such a deed if performed in full, conduces to
benefit and happiness to himself, to others and to both.
14. Human responsibility: The Buddha also turned the
head of divine responsibility to the feet of human responsibility. He
exhorted:
"You are the master of your self, there is no any
other master. By proper training of your (mind), you obtain the difficult
master (Nibbaana) [Attanaa hi attano naatho, ko hi naatho paro si.maa,
attaana va sudantena, naatha labathi dullabha.m]
You have to see your own good and bad deeds not of
others (na paresa.m vilomaani, na perasa.m kataakata.m attanaava
avakkheyya, kataani akataani ca).
No body-else either god, deities, ghosts, other people,
society or any other agent or agency is responsible for one's deed but the
doer himself. Even the Buddha is only the teacher who showed the path but
you are the one who has to tread on it (tumhehi kicca.m aatappa.m
akkhaataaro tathaagataa). Such a doctrine of self-help and self-dependence
is seldom to be met with in pre-Buddhist ethics.
15. Emphasis on self help ethical principles apparently
indicates following important points:
a. Futility of prayers and oblation.
b. It is a natural method.
c. Self effort in mental Enoblement.
d. Counter action vice with virtue.
16. The Buddha found Vedic prayers to gods, for
prosperity, for help, for removal of evil (durit) and to bring good with
various sacrificial rites related with them as ineffective and useless.
One has to rely on his own effect to achieve an end. Buddha's last word to
his discipline "be a light to your self and roam about relying on
yourself " remains a very significant in the history of ethics which
considers human endeavour as the guiding principles of all moral conduct
Prayers and oblations do not yield much result but certainly human efforts
do. The Buddha exhorted that just "as a stone thrown into the water
can never be made a float by wishing and praying even so an evil person
who had died could not be made to enter heaven by the wishful thinking and
praying of other people. Despite such wishing and praying he would
definitely enter the world of mistery. The Buddha further said:
"there are these five things, Gahapati, which are desirable result
hard to get in the world. What five? They are longevity, lovely
complexion, happiness, honour, and rebirth in the heavenly world. One
should neither pray nor merely dream of them. But instead he should
endeavour to fulfil the causes which will produce them for him."
It is a fact undeniable that human being depend in some
way or other on each other's mutual aid, co-operation, loving, kindness (mettaa),
compassion (karu.naa). etc. are natural phenomena of evolution but one has
to seek help from his own efforts. The enlightened teachers only teach the
method to achieve the ethical perfection but the efforts are necessarily
made by the disciples themselves.
17. The Dharma is considered in the suutras as natural
law of conditional origination (pra.tityasamutpaada) which all the time
remain uncontradicted, objective, unalterable truth, whether Buddha
teaches it or does not teach it. The Buddha also emphasized on the
continuation of mental improvement in following words:
I do not recommend a standstill in meritorious acts, 0
Bhikkhus, let alone lessening of doing so. I do favour the development of
meritorious deed but neither its ceasing nor its lessening.
18. The other differential characteristic of the suutra
ethics can be summarized as below:
Humanistic: It is universally applicable to all human
beings irrespective of their caste, creed, sex, nationality etc..
19. Practical: Everyone of its concepts and practice is
grounded on practical experience. It can be practiced in all times and
places.
20. Psychological: The Buddha's ethical teaching were
based on sharp and abtruset analysis of mind (citta) and its functioning (cettasika);
their wholesome (kusala) and unwholesome (akusala) mental states, are
deeply analyzed. Such a psychological ethics is not found in pre-sutra
literature.
21 Anti-passimistic: It is another important feature,
of Sautrantika ethics which contradict the present understanding of
Buddhistic ethics as passimistic in the beginning and optimistic in the
end. The study of Suutras reveals that the Buddha does speak about Dukkha
in the world but not that "everything is Dukkha by nature" (Saa"mkhya
concept) as he spoke about happy states in this very world and heavenly
happy states too. There are happy and unhappy states in this very
life-time. The Saa"mkhya element of pessimism entered into the
interpretation of Dukkha in Buddhism which caused the mistake of
considering Buddhistic ethics as passimistic in the beginning and
optimistic in the end. As a matter of fact, it is not passimistic neither
in the beginning nor in the end. The practice of ethical laws brings about
happiness in the beginning, middle and in the end. (aadi kalyaana.m, majje
kalyaana.m pariyosaana-kalyaana.m).
22. Therapeutical: The Buddha is called a doctor (Bhaisajayaguru)
because like a doctor, he taught the nature of ailment (dukkha), its
causes (samudaya), its treatment (nirodha) and method of treatment (marga).
The diagnosis of various kinds of emotional afflictions (Kilasas),
perceptual illusions (Vipallasas), kinds of personality (Carita), analysis
of negative immoral forces (aku'sala) and their treatment through opposite
moral forces and DhyanaVipassana, definitely proves Suutra ethics to be
psychotherapentical.
The Suutra ethics can be called an anti-dote, Therapy
or Reality; Therapy which has realistic anti-dote for all mental
disturbances or neurotic symptoms which are faced by all human beings in
the course of critical periods. The Suutra ethics not only cures by the
method of concentration (dhyana), insight (vipassanaa) various kinds of
practical meditations, it also provides sure ground for preventive
medicine by developing mental moral forces. The further evolution of
ethical principles of sutra ethics, psychologically and logically analyzed
and debated by later Sautrantikas in Kathaavathu, Abhidharmako'sabhaa'sya.
Pramaanasamuccaya and Pramaa.navaritika are left aside for future
exploration.
This short summary of some of the differential
characteristics of ethical philosophy found in the Suutras prove that the
Buddha launched an ethical revolution to counteract the traditional false
ethical concepts and practice and showed mankind a correct ethical method
leading to Liberation.
Source : www.buddhismtoday.com
Update : 01-12-2001